Human Resources Practice Essay

The Human Resources Profession Map was developed by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) to aid the HR industry and its professionals to adapt to the growing and future demands, setting out the foundation for global standards of competency for the HR profession. It recognises that people could enter the HR profession from a diverse range of backgrounds. Speaking at the 2009 CIPD Conference Chief Executive Jackie Orme added: â€Å"The map will allow us to maintain rigour while improving flexibility: the flexibility to meet the needs of generalists and specialists and to support professionals at all levels, and the rigour to ensure HR professionals and employees alike can be confident that a CIPD qualification delivers not just the capabilities needed for today, but the capacity to adapt to the growing demands that will be placed on the profession in the future.† The map is an online, interactive tool located on the CIPD website for all HR and L&D professionals to use. It explains the specialist functions, behavioural skills and knowledge required in order for HR personnel to deliver effective support to any organisation. The profession map is linked to the ‘My HR Map’, which is a self assessment tool providing targeted recommendations to improve skills and maximise career potential. The map comprises of ten professional areas at four different bands and eight key behaviours HR professionals need to perform their role and are considered benchmark within the industry. There are four bands of professional competence listed below which highlight the hierarchy of the profession and operate along with the behaviours and professional areas. Band One – Administrator / Support Level – Generally customer focussed individuals, who support colleagues with administration functions Band Two – Advisor Level – Responsible for delivering HR policies to employees, managing the HR related issues amongst teams Band Three – Management Level – Responsible for implementing strategy, change and HR policies Band Four – Director Level – Leads and manages an organisation or professional area, developing strategy There are eight key behaviours listed below which describe the knowledge and skills a HR professional should encompass and how they should carry out their activities. A description of each of the eight key behaviours listed below and how they relate to the HR professional can be seen in Appendix 1. Curious Decisive thinker Skilled influencer Personally credible Collaborative Driven to deliver Courage to challenge Role model There are ten professional areas, including two core areas namely ‘Insights, strategy and solutions’ and ‘Leading HR’. Both areas are fundamental to all HR professionals, regardless of their role, level or specialism. The remaining eight areas listed below demonstrate the knowledge and experience a HR professional should be competent within. A description of each of the ten professional areas listed below and how they relate to the HR professional can also be seen in Appendix 1. Service delivery and information Organisation design Organisation development Resourcing and talent planning Learning and talent development Performance and reward Employee engagement Employee relations Although I do not work in HR, from reviewing the HR Profession Map I can see that I relate to Band 1 ‘Service delivery and information’. 10.1.1 – It is very important within my role as a Customer Contact Team Manager to establish customer requirements quickly and question everything. My team seek information from me on a daily basis and I must be prepared to provide them with an answer, however this can only be done if I have understood the situation and circumstances surrounding the query. When dealing with customer service queries we aim to find a resolve which is suitable for both the customer and the company, this is no different within a HR role. 10.7.1 – We have service level agreements surrounding the role and must comply with legislative requirements such as the Data Protection Act, when dealing with customers information, and the Consumer Credit Act, when dealing with customers financial information and processing payments. As we are employed by an outsourcing company ttl Automotive and onsite with the client Porsche Cars Great Britain, we also have organisational procedures and policies which must be adhered to for both companies. We must be mindful that we are representing both companies at all times, onsite we represent ttl Automotive, however when dealing with customers we represent the Porsche brand. 10.9.1 – My day to day role involves many HR elements, I have listed below some of the areas I am responsible for: – Managing performance – Managing absence levels – Recruitment and selection of new staff – Training and development of new and existing staff – Working within service level agreements in alignment with company policy and targets – Ensuring compliance with legislation and company policy I am aware of what I am accountable for and have authority to action within the realms of my role, for example I can roll out information to the team, process staff requests and maintain this information on a database. I can produce absence reports for the management team, complete return to work interviews and organise occupational health visits. I am responsible for the recruitment process and interview of new staff, and set monthly/quarterly and annual objectives for the team based on information received from my line manager and the HR team. However, when there is an issue which falls outside of my knowledge and experience I seek advice and guidance from the HR team who guide me through the process. For example, in a previous role a member of staff came into work intoxicated, it unfortunately was late at night as I worked for a 24 hour call centre therefore a colleague and I had to deal with this incident. It was a very difficult situation to deal with at the time and when the HR team were informed the following day they aided me in completing all the necessary paperwork as this was deemed as gross misconduct. 10.13.1 – In 2012 Porsche took the decision to change outsourcing companies, this was an uncertain time for the team and I as we were unsure if we would be made redundant in the process. Fortunately it was a case of the team moving across to the new outsourcing company, which involved the TUPE process. During the transition time, it was very important for the team and I to maintain the level of service we had always provided and to remain as flexible as possible throughout the change. During the process our new outsourcing company, ttl Automotive, had their own ways of working so many meetings were held in order to ensure they complied with how Porsche wished for the contract to be managed. This resulted in very little impact on the team and the transition period went very smoothly. 10.14.1 & 10.16.1 – There were advantages to changing companies, for example as we were a new team ttl Automotive requested we pilot the change from  paper payslips to email payslips. We were also involved in the testing stage of online holiday forms and were requested to provide our user experience via a feedback portal called Survey Monkey. I really embraced this as I felt the company were forward thinking and innovative. I myself am keen to find better, smarter, more efficient ways of working and recently implemented an online payment system, which again the team were required to test prior to launch. Change is always an interesting time and there will always be hurdles, however if ultimately it is beneficial for the company and more importantly the user then it is for the greater good. Within my role I deal with a variety of customers, for example there are internal customers such as members of the senior management team, line managers and employees. I also have external customers, for example recruitment agencies and suppliers who we have service contracts with. Activity 2 The three main customers I deal with regularly are senior managers, line managers and employees. It is important for me to establish and understand each customers need quickly and the timeframe they require it be to actioned within. I must then review each request and prioritise based on level of importance. I am often handling a number of customer requests at any one time, which can cause conflict, however I ensure I prioritise on the basis of what is deemed to be a business critical issue and these are dealt with as a matter of urgency. With this in mind it is also important to set the expectations of each customer so they are aware when their request will be actioned, this can often alleviate any conflict. I have recently had the following requests from internal customers, which I have placed in the order of priority. Customer Customer need Priority Level Senior Manager Contingency Planning 1st Line Manager Recruitment 2nd Employee Flexible working 3rd In the process of reviewing the company’s overall strategic plan, senior managers were requested to develop alternative strategies as a means to accommodate unexpected conditions or events, such as economic recessions or catastrophic events. I had also been asked to complete this for my own team and deemed this as a business critical request, therefore set about ensuring it was completed as a priority within the timeframe set. Secondly a line manager required assistance with the recruitment process, following a member of his team being promoted. As it had been agreed that the member of staff would continue in the role until a successor was found, this was not deemed as critical as the contingency planning however could be actioned in the background. For example, liaising with head office and submitting the approved job description onto online job boards and the company website. Whilst we were concentrating on coordinating the contingency planning, the recruitment programme could run in the background allowing us to obtain a number of CV’s for when we were ready to commence with review and selection for interview. Finally an employee whilst on maternity leave contacted the department wishing to gain further information on flexible working. Whilst this is very important and ultimately could have an effect on the business, the employee had a number of months before she was due to return therefore I made the decision that I could action this request within the HR team’s service level agreement of 48 hours when responding to requests. Within my role there are many forms of communication used, for example: verbal, written form and practical/presentation. The type of communication  used is dependent on the nature of the request or situation. I have associated at Appendix 2, where I have detailed the advantages and disadvantages of the three main methods of communication I use in my day to day role. When considering the above internal customer requests several communication methods were used, for example the contingency planning coordination was completed with a mixture of verbal and written, and finally practical when presenting the findings. I, alongside my colleagues, were present in group brainstorming sessions where ‘if, buts and maybes’ were thoroughly discussed and explored, our attendance allowed us to provide support and guidance as and when required. Written guidance notes had also been prepared by the Senior Manager and stated the requirements of the plan and how she wished for the teams to produce their findings. The advantages of using a variety of communication methods for this particular request catered for all manner of different learning styles enabling all participants to understand the brief and therefore contribute accordingly. However, it is not always necessary or appropriate for all communication methods to be used. When considering the third request above, it would be crucial for any information provided for the employee regarding flexible working to be communicated in written form, as verbally can easily be misunderstood and email too informal. I always follow up any telephone or face to face conversations such as this with a letter and refer the employee to the staff handbook for final confirmation. I believe it is my responsibility to ensure the information provided is accurate, relevant and delivered in a timely manner, and therefore should be followed up in writing to avoid any future issues. In my role as Customer Contact Team Manager I am responsible for the Service Level Agreements (SLA’s) with Porsche Cars Great Britain and ttl Automotive. The SLA’s are reviewed annually and are a key measurement indicator in demonstrating effective service delivery, producing service on time and  within the agreed budget. I meet with both companies on a quarterly basis to ensure we are complying with the agreed terms and to highlight any concerns. The complaints procedure underpins the process for the organisation, which is followed accordingly. Recently a customer made a complaint to Porsche Head Office as they had not received their invitation to the driving experience centre following the purchase of a new Porsche. I established very quickly that the invitation had not yet been sent due to the dealership incorrectly placing the vehicle order, which resulted in the invitation not being generated. I dealt with the customer personally and understandably he was very disappointed to have not received the level of service he had come to expect of the brand. I followed the organisations procedures for dealing with customer complaints, and am pleased I was able to resolve his query by working within the guidelines set and offering suitable compensation for the inconvenience he had experienced, he has since remained an advocate of the Porsche brand.

Incentive Plans

Companies’ presidents, CEOs, and managers for decades have used incentives to attract, reward, and retain employees. Dessler (2011) recognizes that most employees receive salary or hourly wage as well as other incentives (Dessler, 2011). Dessler (2011) reports a variety of incentive plans ranging from piecework plans to the earning at risk pay plans (Dessler, 2011). While there are many incentive plans that can be discussed, this paper will only highlight the advantages and disadvantages of merit pay as an incentive and profit sharing plans.Merit Pay  Dessler (2011) defines merit pay as a salary increase awarded based on performance and becomes part of the employees’ base pay salary (Dessler, 2011). Dessler (2011) asserts that merit pay has advocates who argues that rewards tied to performance can motivate performance and detractors claim that merit pay undermine teamwork and misconception of pay as a whole (Dessler, 2011). As Dessler (2011) defines merit pay with adv ocates and detractors other authors such as Longenecker and Goff (1992) uses the term performance appraisal instead of merit pay.Longenecker and Goff (1992) states that merit pay or performance appraisal is believed to be effective by managers and subordinates because it help clarify employee input about his or her job (Longenecker and Goff, 1992). At the same time, both managers and subordinates viewed merit plans as ineffective for linking pay to performance, ineffective for improving motivation and performance as well as ineffective for managers and subordinates working relationship (Longenecker and Goff, 1992).While Longenecker and Goff (1992) referred to merit pay more as performance appraisal others such as Hayes (1999) questions incentive programs altogether. In the article ‘Pros & Cons of Pay for Performance’ the author claims that no one really knows if incentive programs truly work (Hays, 1999). This article further asserts that incentive programs such as this plan create competitiveness that is not necessarily best for a company (Hays, 1999). This article proposes that rewards control behavior through seduction, that it ruins relationships, create competitiveness, that it reduces risk taking, creativity, and  innovation (Hays, 1999).Profit Sharing Plans Profit sharing plans are incentive plans where employees receive a share of a company’s annual profits (Dessler, 2011). Dessler (2011) asserts that there is ample evidence that profit sharing plans boost productivity, but the effects on profits is insignificant once one factor in costs (Dessler, 2011). In fact, the article ‘Profit-Sharing Plans Work’ the author proposes that cash profits are the best way to let employees know that they are important to the company and profit sharing is a tool that could turn the country around (Profit-Sharing Plans Work, 1988).Further, the article emphasizes how workers worry less about management receiving massive profits at the ex pense of the employees’ earnings and for management it provides a financial cushion that limits losses in economic downturns (Profit-Sharing Plans Work, 1988). All the while, this article argues that profit sharing plans where proceeds go into retirement funds instead of employees’ pockets fail to motivate and improve performance (Profit-Sharing Plans Work, 1988).In any case, this article suggests that company morale can be damaged when upper management or salaried employees are the only participants in the profit sharing plans of the company (Profit-Sharing Plans Work, 1988). Yet, Flesher (1993) article describes the profit sharing plans as the type of contribution plans that enables employees to share in accumulated profits of the company, and it is divided among the participants on a pro rata basis based on the participants and the total income of all participants in the plans (Flesher, 1993).Such plans offer the advantages of immediate tax deductions for corporatio n and no immediate tax payable by the employee (Flesher, 1993). Nevertheless, Hays (1999) questions the use of incentive programs for improving performance and asks the question: why do so many companies claim that incentive programs administered effectively or improve company performance? Hays (1999) reports in his article that personal recognition can be more motivational than money, clearly the times have changed because it is this author’s opinion that people are first motivated by monetary reward, then material reward, and then personal recognition.Conclusion Dessler (2011) describes individual incentive programs as performance based pay and team based incentives as performance pay for the team, as variable pay pays a group for its productivity (Dessler, 2011). Dessler (2011) continued by describing the various types of incentive pay plans ranging from the piecework plan to the earning at risk pay plans (Dessler, 2011). After analyzing some of the authors’ article and this author concluded that incentives are not just for the employees but for the employers as well.Pay incentives such as the merit pay plans and the profit sharing plans can be used as tools in an effective manner to increase productivity for a company, but as for motivational purposed for the employees, this could be in some ways for some employees a positive thing and for other employees a negative thing.Also, when asked the question 🙠 do profit sharing plans improve performance?), people like Hays (1999) seem to think that personal recognition can be more motivational than money. While people like Flesher (1993) seem to think that merit pay and profit sharing offers advantages of immediate tax deductions for corporation and no immediate tax payable by the employee (Flesher, 1993). Last, incentive pay has been and will always continue to be used in corporate America as a tool to attract, reward, and retain employees.

The Puppy Who Lost His Way

â€Å"He had never slept in a better bed, Rainsford decided. † As morning comes Rainsford is awaken by the shouting of a man, a more familiar voice says Rainsford quietly to himself. Beyond his belief he stumbles to the window of the chateau to see Whitney yelling for help from the wrecked boat. Rainsford says he's back to find his friend who he had lost only but four days ago. Rainsford stumbles down the steps and greets his friend just as zaroff had met hlrn at the door.Rainsford brings Whitney In and Rainsford explains everything that had happened to him the past few days. That Zaroff man seems like a monster, Whitney said. Rainsford then takes Whitney around the island showing him the numerous spots were he had been hiding from Zaroff He also showed Whitney the 10 slaves in the basement; this is Just making Whitney even more and more disgusted about this Zaroff man. The two men then come back to the eerie chateau for a somewhat royal lunch.Rainsford thinks to himself that Is seems as If Whitney Is the same position he was In Just a few days ago. He also realizes that he himself is now Zaroff Rainsford remains nearly speechless for the rest of the lunch. As night approaches Whitney is bewildered to find that Rainsford is gone, He goes outside and not but a minute passes and hears a rustle of the bushes, out emerges a dark shadowy figure. It is Rainsford with his shirt soaking in blood, Whitney, says Rainsford you are awake

Multicultural Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Premarital screening Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Premarital screening - Essay Example Most of the technologies applied to provide these challenges are usually applied in; screening, diagnosis as well as information control and management. Cervical cancer is one of the current reproductive health challenge faced by the current generation; science has shown that it a condition caused by tissues that develops around the cervix. Characteristically, this form of cancer develops slowly and may take a longer time to be detected. Other causes of cervical cancer has been identified to occur from the essence of having multiple sexual partners among women, Human papillomavirus (HPV), early age sexual inter course and smoking of cigarettes (cervicalcancer.about.com). To begin with, science has played a major role in provision of solution to this current reproductive system by providing a platform for the scientists to conduct scientific researches geared towards proving solution through; acquisition of imperative information concerning new methodologies of treatment (cervicalcancer.about.com). Additionally, science had played a major role in the context of technology by facilitating the development of screening and treatment methods. The treatment methods are; radiotherapy, chemotherapy together with surgery. These methods may sometimes be used through a combination of one or two of them; however, in most cases, a single treatment method is usually applied to the patients (Yarbro et al 2005, pg.37). Surgical treatment of cancer can be conducted in various ways; the first method applied in the surgical treatment is the removal of the lymph nodes which is scientifically known as lymphadenectomy. The other surgical treatment method is the complete removal of the cervix and the organs around it; the method is scientifically known as radical trachelectomy (World Health Organization 123). The functionality of chemotherapy, involves the killing of cancerous cells by utilization of radiation rays. Chemotherapy drugs are also imperatively used to kill the

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Development of Railways and it's impact on the society - Essay Example 1). This paper studies the factors causing the growth of railways in Europe and its impact on the society. The birth of railways happened in the year 1767 when the iron rails were laid for the first time ever at Coalbrookdale. The early railways were used in the French Wars that were carried out between 1790s and 1800s. At Pen-y-Darren, in the year 1804, the Trevithick’s Wylam locomotive was used which was one of the first forms of railway. Four years later at Euston, the Trevithick’s Catch-me-who-can was used. The Blenkinsops rack locomotive and the Hedleys Puffing Billy were introduced successively in the years 1812 and 1813 respectively. The Stephenson’s Blocher was used in 1815. Stephenson created the Stockton to Darlington railway line that was 27 miles of 4 8Â ½" track in the length was opened in the year 1825 (historyhome.co.uk, 2011). The first passengers were carried by the Locomotion 1. Joseph Hall in 1825 developed the Cort’s puddling process as well as the rolling process. Coke was replaced by coal with the hot blast method proposed by Neilson in 1828. The 30 miles long railway line leading from Manchester to Liverpool was commenced in the year 1830. In 1833, a railway line for the transportation of coal was started from Liecester to Swanington. Daniel Gooch engineered the project of the London – Bristol line construction. The Isambard Kingdom Brunel undertook this project in 1835. This marked the beginning of the Great Western Railway that was completely flat over a length of 85 miles. The London - Bath – Briston railway line and the Birmingham to London railway line were started in 1838. Till the year 1838, the total length of railway lines that had been made was 500 miles. In just a matter of ten years till 1848 the growth of the railway became so rampant that the total length of railway lines increased from 500 miles to 5000 miles.  "The

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Via Turnitin, - Essay Example Barrister A barrister is a member of the legal profession that has been ‘called to the Bar’ ergo the name. They argue their cases before the court and also serve as legal counsel or advisers to their clients with the help of their solicitors. Up until 1990, barristers have the exclusive right to argue their cases in court, but now, this law has been revoked and solicitors, in some cases, are allowed to perform this role as well. To be eligible for the title of barrister-at-law, students must pass the qualifications and standards set by the Council of Legal Education and is only restricted to the Inns of Court. By paying a fee, students are summoned to the Bar. For a year, they have to become apprentices in the chambers of practising barrister. Before presenting a case in court, barristers are usually aided and instructed by solicitors regarding their cases. Since 1989, and from the beginning of 1990, many changes to the legal proceedings have been introduces to cut back on litigation costs—one of which is that barristers could present their cases in court without their instructing solicitors in some cases. The law also states that barristers could not be sued by their clients for negligence in presenting their case in court and likewise, cannot sue their client for unpaid fees (â€Å"barrister†). ... Solicitors also â€Å"have a monopoly of certain legal business and are subject to court regulation.† The qualifications, trainings, and standards to become a solicitor is set by the Law Society which includes, but is not limited to an apprenticeship under a practicing solicitor for at least several years and must be a graduate of law school (â€Å"solicitor†). Gray Areas Despite the very distinct roles and functions that was originally intended to be performed by a solicitor and a barrister, changes in the judicature brought about by the changing demands of time have created some gray areas between the functions and roles of the two legal professions wherein they tend to meet in some areas. For instance, originally there is a clear cut distinction that solicitors are to handle legal matters outside the court while barristers would be in charge of arguing cases before the court. The roles are also very separate: the solicitor is the one who gives legal advises to the cl ient and prepares the case for court. After all the legal preparations are handled by the solicitor, the barrister then takes over and brings the case before a judge. Through this process, it is only the solicitor who gets to transact directly with the client. â€Å"It is the solicitor who refers cases to a barrister if there is a need for the case to go to court.† In a nutshell, it is under the prudence of the solicitor if the client would require the services of a barrister (â€Å"Difference between Barrister and Solicitor†). If and when a barrister is brought in the case, the client does not transact with him/ her directly. Rather, the client transacts with the

Practical Implication of Balance Scorecard on Essay

Practical Implication of Balance Scorecard on - Essay Example In their studies, they described the balanced scorecard as a management system for strategic planning that enables both profit and non-profit-organisations to state clearly their visions and underlying strategies and then transform them into actions. Smith (2005) in his studies described the balanced scorecard as a performance management tool that is used by organisations to align their activities along with their strategy and vision, secondly, to improve external and internal communication of the organisations and thirdly to monitor performance against the sets goals/ objectives. The report will use the Apple Inc as the case study and it is of essence to note that Apple Inc is largely an information and technology company that mainly specializes in designing, manufacturing, and selling of computer hardware and software, and consumer electronics such as personal computers, phones and television pads, among others. The company presently, has its headquarters at the state of California in the United States of America but it has a wide branch network of over 300 stores located in 14 countries across the world. According to OGrady (2008), Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne originally formed the company in 1976 and by 1980; the company marked a major milestone by being listed at the stock exchange. Mr. Arthur Levinson as the chairperson currently heads Apple Inc while Mr. Tim Cook is the chief executive officer of the company. The critical analysis of the critical implications of the balanced scorecard in Apple Inc will help to explain how the management system contributed to the company’s current success and how it intendeds to further propel the company into greater success. The charts below demonstrate how each of these products and others performs or sells in the market in terms of the revenue they generate, and the revenue generated by the company from different regions or markets where it has

Global supply chain and Future Sustainable development Essay

Global supply chain and Future Sustainable development - Essay Example Supply chain management is coupled with modeling the product market and identifying the niche. This allows the producer to understand the scheduling of production and supply. The shift allowing more developing countries to produce market goods has favored China’s market growth. This is because China has low overhead cost when it comes to factors of production such as labor. Though the trend is opposed because of its implications such as child labor, environmental concerns among others this has not deterred its growth. Stakeholders demand constant and reliable supply of goods and services which developing countries are able to provide. The global supply chain taking to use developing countries to produce its goods has spurred speedy development. Large international firms have to assess the market for its goods before establishing a network of outlets. This includes data collection in order to create a framework of regions where the product is in actual demand. Also, firms have to adopt social, environmental and economic goals for the benefit of the developing country. Though, there has been a failure of some firms failing to meet their obligations. The development of sustainable global is a three-stage process. The first step is identifying the motivators. This covers the reason as to why global supply chains would work effectively. Is it the overwhelming unquenched market? Is it the availability of ready and cheap labor? The second stage covers assessing levers. This includes balancing various factors such as expenses against profit when the new strategy is implemented. Will networking increase the profits to the desired level and if so, will the current supply chain be able to accommodate market collapse. The factors are summarized into seven principles, which include, aim, policy, management, industry collaboration, partners accepting such change,

Foreign Policies Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Foreign Policies Japan - Essay Example We then conclude that such an investment scenario does exist in Japan and give recommendations for the investment. Japan was a much maligned nation during the World War II (WW2) and prior to that. It was only after the end of WW2 did Japan began to consolidate its economic progress more seriously. Although the bombing at Nagasaki and Hiroshima did bring the WW2 to an end, the economy of Japan was shaken to such an extent that it had to restart from scratch. From the formation of its constitution, in 1947,1 Japan it has made rapid strides in the field of science and technology. With the current scenario on globalization of economy and with many countries opening up, the world economy is poised for a rapid change. Before we embark on the current scenario let us delve into Japan's past to see how Japan became a global power. It is widely assumed that the promulgation of Charter of Oath in 1868 2 provided the impetus for the growth of modern Japan. The then Meiji emperor emerged to be a major unifying factor promoting a series of radical reforms aimed at improving the conditions of Japan. 3 The Meiji rulers emphasized on improving the basic infrastructure of Japan and strengthened their foreign policies with the US and other European countries. These reforms laid the foundation for Japan to emerge a global power in subsequent years. The emergence of WW1 saw Japan b... 4 The interim period between the two World Wars saw Japan go through a major political upheaval and the economy was in shambles. Nevertheless the Japanese export increased despite the Depression in the US. 5 The WW2 saw, once again the emergence of Japan was a major military power. The atomic bombings reduced Japan to shambles and the Japan surrendered to the mighty Allied Forces on 2nd September 1945 on board the U.S.S. Missouri in Tokyo Bay. 6 "Throughout the postwar period, Japan's economy continued to boom, with results far outstripping expectations. Japan rapidly caught up with the West in foreign trade, gross national product (GNP), and general quality of life. These achievements were underscored by the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games and the Osaka International Exposition (Expo '70) world's fair in 1970." 7 Foreign policy of Japan Major foreign policies were drafted in Japan as early as mid-nineteenth century until the Tokugawa seclusion 8 was breached by the US Navy in 1853-54. This prompted the Japanese to embark on a policy of rising on par with the Western economy. "Beginning with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, which ushered in a new, centralized regime, Japan set out to "gather wisdom from all over the world" and embarked on an ambitious program of military, social, political, and economic reforms that transformed it within a generation into a modern nation-state and major world power." 9 In 1952, Japan became a sovereign nation and wanted to pursue economic goals and establish itself as a peace loving nation within the world community. These were the initial foreign policy goals during the early 50's. Gradually, with the passing of the Cold War era, the Japanese concentrated on its economic goals rather than

Review of Litterature on Finance and Potential Areas of Development Literature

Of Litterature on Finance and Potential Areas of Development for Further Reseaarch - Literature review Example Thus the concept of finance includes several underlying theories and understanding that make the system applicable towards the achievement of the financial goals and objectives of the business organizations or the world as a whole. The present study focuses on a literature review thereby discussing on the studies of several researchers on the topic of finance and would try to determine the potential areas of development for further research. Literature Review on Finance: The following literature review has been based on the studies conducted by several researchers as obtained from journals and different articles. These literatures have been particularly focused on the severe issue of economic and financial crisis that is capable of impacting the entire world through the phase of recession. The studies have been based on the issues of the theories discussed by the researchers and no quantitative analyses have been involved. The study has been narrowed down in the sense that irrelevant materials have not been included in the review. Since the length of the paper has been limited, hence number of sources has been considered accordingly. However the researches have been analyzed critically determining their objectives, and the strengths and weaknesses of the studies. In terms of the purpose of the study, only those researches have been included that are appropriate and relevant to the financial literatures and readers would be able to relate to the issues relevantly. A study conducted by Christian Marazzi reflects an understanding of the financial crisis and the nature of the problems considering the transformation that have been taking place over the years. Marazzi is an Italian economist who conducted an analysis of the global crisis that he considered as a new type of crisis that involved neo-liberal financial capitalism. He focused on the problems related to finance that have been mounting up over the years. Concentrating on the recent global economic crisis, h e stressed on the level of unemployment and difficulties that the world was supposed to be encountered with. He mentioned that the financial deficits were leading to insolvency crisis hampering the banking system as a whole. In this regard he criticized the easy solutions considered by reformists. (Bria, 2009, pp.388-394). Marazzi’s study can be considered to be focused and relevant to the issues and impacts of financial crisis. He has tried to related theoretical aspects with the prevailing financial status across the world. However it can also be said that the study could be tried to be more specific in determining the measures that might effectively resolve problems associated with financial crises. Similar to Marazzi’s the study conducted by Barsky and DeLong lacked the wide ranging aspects and approach to specific measures in the context of financial crises and their impacts. Barsky and DeLong in their studies discussed about the fluctuations of the stock markets. According to them, fluctuations in the stock market are reflected by the asset pricing model that considers the present-value concept in the context of the efficient markets. The fluctuations that have been visible in the US financial markets over the years have been obtained to be in consistence with

Existing Direct Tax System and Proposed Direct Tax Code in India Essay Example for Free

Existing Direct Tax System and Proposed Direct Tax Code in India Essay Tax is defined as a compulsory payment made to the government by the individuals firms and companies without any expectation of a direct return. In general there are two types of tax system prevailing in our country. One is direct tax and other is indirect tax. Here we will restrict our discussion to direct tax only. Direct taxes are those the burden of which cannot be shifted, that is incidence and impact is on the same person. In India the tax law is governed by the finance act. The amendments are brought through budget every year which is issued on the last date of February. There have been various arguments in regard to the complexity of the tax laws. The new tax system which is proposed basically focuses on the principle of equality and simplicity. Instead of having different explanations of tax laws under different umbrellas all the laws will be brought under one head. The new tax system will be highly focused on the matter that the richer should pay heavier tax and vice-versa. For this regard the exemption limit and tax slabs will be expanded higher. Moreover under new taxation laws various taxes like securities transaction tax will also be abolished thus making the code an efficient one. With the new tax code being implemented in India one can expect to have free trade across the length and breadth of the country and peace in the bags of investors. Thus, the new tax system is an attempt to create a system with minimum loopholes of the existing system, thus contributing to the national benefit.

Nonmaleficence Pillars Of Health System

Nonmaleficence Pillars Of Health System Abstract: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence are the main â€Å"pillars† of the health care system. These two ethical principles seem to be the foundation and set a basic framework for the practice of health care. Hippocrates recognized the significance of these two principles and he pledged to practice healthcare following them (Morrison 48). The function of these two principles go beyond treatment of patients, in fact, it is relevant when dealing with the healthcare staff. As a health care administrator it is vital to create a working environment that runs by the two ethical principles as well as the ethical principle of justice. Justice comes into play because it is a healthcare administrators responsibility and obligation to make sure that each individual staff members is being treated fairly and equally. Thus, ethical issues that are raised in the workplace, specifically, in a health care facility, more often are associated with the principles of nonmaleficence, beneficence, and justic e. A health care administrator is expected to follow all ethical guidelines in the practice of health care. The principle of nonmaleficence is to prevent harm from occurring or the â€Å"duty to avoid harming others† (Morrison 48). This is associated with the treatment of patients which should be done with care and not carelessly. Additionally, the patients autonomy should not be violated under any circumstance in order to prevent potential harm from taking place. In the â€Å"U.S. Hostile Workplace Survey† that was taken in the year 2000 showed that about one out of six workers in a workplace experience some type of bullying that occurred within the last six months (ahanews.com). This shows that some health care administrators are not fully looking after their healthcare facilities and this is allowing bullying to take place. In this case, the healthcare administrator is not doing his/her job in preventing harm, and is therefore not following the ethical principle of nonm aleficence. Furthermore, nonmaleficence goes beyond merely preventing physical harm that might take place during a treatment procedure such as surgery, but it also refers to preventing any harm from occurring to the staff and healthcare facility. The benefits and harms are most often weighed against each other in health care to guide what needs to be done. It is a responsibility of the health care administrator to construct an environment that is not harmful for the employees or staff members. In addition to preventing harm to patients, you must prevent any harm from occurring to the staff as well. The issues of discrimination, bullying and harassment, including sexual harassment in the working environment must be fully and openly addressed. These topics should be taken in as being intolerable and potential harm should be prevented to the employees in risk of these. Moreover, any type of bullying that may occur in the work force should be prevented. Bullying in the workforce is extremely prevalent and this most commonly leads to depression and lowered morale of the individual staff member being bullied. There should be a positive environment in the work area for open discussion and no fear of judgment in the case of telling the HCA about the bullying. There should be an ease to talk to the HCA, and he/she should create an open relation ship with the staff so there is strict guidelines needed to be followed, but an openness to speak about issues of bullying, discrimination, or harassment. There should be a procedure to report someone who is harassed and they should not feel fear of reprisal for mentioning the issue. The supervisor should not be so strict or too lenient because the staff could be scared or too comfortable with him/her. In order to be fair and equal and prevent any harm by being too strict or too lenient, the principles of justice and nonmaleficence need to be followed. Bullying can include â€Å"intimidating and disruptive behaviors† which can cause significant issues for a staff member who is experiencing lowered morale. The staff member being bullied could have trouble caring for the patient as effectively, thus can cause â€Å"poor patient satisfaction†. Patient care in a healthcare facility is reliant on â€Å"teamwork, communication, and a collaborative work environment.† It is important to provide a safe environment and to do so a health care professional who is experiencing bullying or seeing it occur should report it or address the issue. Addressing the issue is very crucial to the success of performance and patient care. The joint effort is needed in health care organizations and a mere act of bullying can affect the entire healthcare facility by lowering the morale and lowering the teamwork and interaction. This is obviously causing harm and the principle of nonmaleficence is not coming into play when bullying has occ urred. Therefore, the health care administrator should adopt a code of conduct in order to follow guidelines and ensure that the staff members are clear what is bullying. Additionally, it is essential â€Å"to create and implement a process for managing disruptive and inappropriate behaviors† in the workplace (newworkplace.wordpress.com). This will ensure that every staff member is being treated fairly and the principle of justice is being followed. More commonly it has been seen that bosses are one of the main sources of bullying. Physicians oftentimes feel that they might know better or more than nurses and treat them unfairly which is going against the principle of nonmaleficence because they are directly causing harm instead of preventing harm. It was seen in one situation that a physician refused to allow his staff member to go to the bathroom which was insulting as well as inappropriate bullying. The â€Å"National Accrediting Agency† now requires of some hospitals to adopt a code of conduct which addresses issues of bullying. â€Å"Intimidating behavior† or bullying can cause staff members to become submissive because of the bullying has cause psychological harm to the individual and this oftentimes leads to medical errors and errors in patient care (workplacebullying.org). A health care administrator has the responsibility of being observant of what is going on in the working environment around him/her and to recognize any social isolation issues, belittling, and overload of work on one particular employee. Segregation and isolation oftentimes occurs due to bullying, however, sometimes it refers to cultural differences. It was seen that the staff members at a particular hospital were critical of the other Latino or Spanish-speaking employees and this caused a rift. There was obvious â€Å"prejudice† and â€Å"stereotyping† because the staff did not communicate with the Latino staff members as much, which caused language discrimination (gradworks.umi.com). This discrimination caused isolation of one particular group and it could and should have been spotted easily by the HCA whose responsibility it is to recognize instances of discrimination and isolation. This situation is also associated with racial discrimination which means that a grou p is isolated due to their ethnicity. It is thus the HCAs responsibility to prevent harm and act on the principle of nonmaleficence; he/she should also ensure that the ethical principle of justice is being practiced by the staff members and everyone is treated fairly and equally. By fixing the problem and causing the staff members to accept each other the health care administrator would be bringing about good which is acting on the ethical principle of beneficence. Racial discrimination is very common when it comes to the workplace. Many have felt that they were refused a promotion because their ethnicity or race. Nurses, specifically Caucasian nurses, felt isolated and discriminated by nurses of different ethnicities. The other nurses who spoke a non-English language seem to exclude Caucasian nurses which cause segregation and is something that should be prevented in the work place (diversityof.net). The impact of this isolation can cause low team effort and cause patient care to be poor. National surveys have shown that many physicians that are of a â€Å"racial/ethnic minority† often feel isolated and racially discriminated in the working environment. Racial discrimination among physicians in the workplace causes â€Å"lower rates of promotion and career satisfaction when compared with nonminority physician peers with similar productivity† (nmanet.org). Ultimately, this has caused a poor working environment and discrimination c auses harm to the staff members as well as the health care organization. In addition to preventing harm, a health care provider must also do good for the patients, which is the principle of beneficence. Beneficence refers to the obligation a HCA has to his/her patients in providing fair treatment that will benefit them, protecting patients autonomous rights and providing aid for anyone in need. It is also an obligation of a health care administrator to bring about good in the workplace and make sure it is a safe working environment for his staff. There should be an appreciation which comes with this principle and should be displayed to the staff members in order to encourage them to always do better and continue to have a high morale. An HCA should balance the benefits and potential harms by deciding the costs against benefits and deciding what would provide the greatest good. The principle of beneficence should always be reinforced in order for the staff members to apply this ethical principle daily. Staff should be treated with beneficence in order for them to treat patients using this same principle. It is the responsibility of the administrator to be encouraging and compassionate towards the staff and to prevent negative attitudes which can lower the morale and cause potential harm. Also, an administrator should always offer assistance whereas being too authoritative would make the staff uneasy. Undoubtedly, the administrator should work on the weaknesses of the staff members and build upon their strengths in order for each individual to use their strengths for the good of the health care organization. Furthermore, downsizing in the workplace which include laying-off employees can affect the employees that are laid off as well as the staff members who are left feeling guilty and cannot work as efficiently due to this guilt. An HCA should not be keeping silent in a time when laying off is occurring because it can lead to rumors spreading around the workplace and a situation can become worse than it really is. Also, it can cause employees to be stressed and upset, which inevitably causes harm. After the lay-off has occurred, there should be open forums and discussion in order to be aware of everyones feelings towards the issue. The work place should be safe and healthy as well as have a positive atmosphere in order for there to be no fear of judgment which will prevent harm from happening such as harassment, bullying, or discrimination. The ethical issues raised in the workplace can range from bullying, discrimination, to harassment. These issues in the workplace cause harm to the staff members due to lowered morale and poor working efficiency. Discrimination can isolate and segregate groups of people or one person due to ethnicity, which would be racial discrimination or by other factors involved. This inevitably causes harm and not everyone is being treated fairly, thus the principle of nonmaleficence and justice are not being applied. Beneficence should be used when creating an environment that is safe and positive for the staff members to feel comfortable enough to report bullying, discrimination or harassment. Nonmaleficence, justice and beneficence are interconnected and work together in many situations for good ethical decision making. The relationship between the employee and administrator and the staff members themselves should be positive if using these three principles.

Margaret Thatcher Essay

Margaret Thatcher Essay Most people say that you either loved or hated Margaret Thatcher. But the truth is that you could feel both ways about her, often at the same time. Margaret Thatcher was a stateswoman in the fullest sense of the word. She ended socialism in Britain and revived the British economy. She even won the Falklands war and radically changed British society. Some would even say that she created the world we live in today. Has the legacy of Margaret Thatcher any influence on British society today? How important was the Iron Lady to Britain? The British inflation was in 1975 up at 24, 11%  [1]  and with the unions constant claim for higher salaries, nobody expected it to drop to a normal level. In 1976 it still did not help and in the same year they had to take a loan in the International Monetary Fund (IMF)  [2]  . When Margaret Thatcher won the general election in 1979, she became Prime Minister of a land in chaos. The British top tax rate was 83% and on unearned income the rate was 98%  [3]  and the bottom rate was 65%. The first thing Margaret Thatcher needed to deal with as a Prime Minister was the inflation and tax rates. She lay out a political program that should prevent a raise in salaries and in public spending. It did not matter whether you were rich or poor; you were paying most of your money in taxes. When Margaret Thatcher left the office in 1990, the top rate was now only 40%  [4]  . Margaret Thatcher fought for minimizing the tax rates and allowed business to boom in Britain. Margaret Thatcher believed in free competition and a reducing of the government power. She radically changed British society. Margaret Thatchers policies of free enterprise, privatization helped modernize Great Britains economy. Her policies of home ownership, share ownership and less government led to a rise in home-ownership rates  [5]  . Margaret Thatcher privatised many national owned industries through the 1980s. A reduction of the public sector would produce more free competition and through that a more market-orientated economy. Her belief was that the private sector was more effective because many of the nationalised industries were sold to the private sector. Therefore the profitable range was higher than government owned industries. But the Thatcher government did also raised money by selling state owned companies like the British airways, British telecom and Rolls Royce. Because of Thatchers influency on inflation, the  small state, and  free markets  through  tight control of the money supply and  privatisation it would now be callen Thatcherism. Thatcherism is characterised by the philosophy of a smaller role for the government and creating a free-market economy. The state should not interfere in the regulation of prises or salaries, but only make sure that the competition stayed fair for all of its participants. Beside this, Thatcherism also implied privatisation of state owned industries, like British airways, low taxation and a monetarist economic policy as an attempt to control the inflation  [6]  . In 1982 Margaret Thatcher won the Falklands War. At a time where the kingdom was divided and the support of the government was almost non-existing. Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands in 1982 and Margaret Thatcher shipped a large elements of the Royal Navy down to retake those islands again. Britain won the Falklands War and it was Britains first military victory since World War II in 1945. For Britain and Thatcher the victory provided a boost of confident. The victory made Britain feel proud and strong about their country. Britains international position became stronger. Thatcher regained her popularity with the voters who were thrilled by the outcome of the war and in 1983 the Thatcher conservative government was re-elected  [7]  . In 1985 things started to work for the government and for Margaret Thatchers old reforms. There was an economic growth and the number of unemployed was falling  [8]  . Especially the economy grew fast. It reached 4-5% a year. The inflation increased to 10% but decreased again in 1990. This led to the third victory in the 1987 general election. Margaret Thatcher won convincingly but had lost many votes to Labour. In November 1990, Margaret Thatcher resigned as Prime Minister. She had lost the strong hold in the public and in the party. Leading co-workers assumed that her strong opinion against further political integration in Europe and her lack of ability to listen to others, in the end was the reason she lost when her position as the leader of the conservative where challenged by John Major who served the post until the election of Tony Blairs Labour Government in May 1997. Margaret Thatcher has not only changed the Conservative Party, but also the entire British society. Thatcher solved certain big problems as, high inflation, high tax rates, low manufacturing productivity and high unemployment. Britain has maintained a strong nation with a strong defence because of the victory of the Falklands War. Thatcher had the passion and she deeply believed that she could make a change in the Conservative Party and therefore she did. Thatcher is important because of her time during the 80s which affect the British society today. The political parties in Britain are forced to adapt her legacy. Thatcher stopped socialism in Britain and now the Labour has had to change into the New Labour, which is something they hate her for. Britain now lives by her political trademarks. Loved or loathed, Thatchers personal accomplishments will remain part of world history. Her legacy will live on and the importance of her hard work during her time as Prime Minister will never be forgotten.

Accounts Of The Holocaust Essay -- essays research papers fc

Accounts of the Holocaust The Holocaust was the systematic annihilation of six million Jews by the Nazi regime during the Second World War. I will tell the story of the Holocaust through many different personal accounts of people involved in many different sides of this incredible story. I will do this by using the personal accounts of surviving victims, of those not directly involved in the event, though affected by it, and the defense of the Nazi party. But first, I will tell you a little about the event. The Holocaust began in 1938 and lasted until 1945. This was most definitely the hardest seven years the Jewish population has ever faced. In 1933 approximately nine million Jews lived in the 21 European countries occupied by Germany during the war. The rise of the Nazi party’s anti-Semitism became noticeable in 1935 when laws were put forth limiting the rights of all German Jews. For the Jewish population the hardest time came with the introduction of the concentration camps. Jewish people were Cordova 2 stripped from their homes and hiding places by the German special police services such as the Special State Police (the Gestapo), the Storm Troopers (S.A.), and the Security Police (S.S.). The Jews were transported, in mass amounts, to different Concentration and Extermination Camps throughout Europe. Here they were forced into labor and exterminated when found to be useless to the Nazis. To explain the cause of the Holocaust we must first look at the situation through the eyes of the Nazi party. They truly believed that the Jewish population was the enemy and that annihilation was the only way to rebuild Germany. Dr. Joseph Gobells, the author of The Gobells Diaries, and a member of the Nazi party explained: The Jews have deserved the catastrophe that has now overtaken them. Their destruction will go hand in hand with the destruction of our enemies. We must hasten this process with cold ruthlessness. We shall thereby render an inestimable service to a humanity tormented for thousands of years by the Jews. This uncompromising anti-Semitic attitude must prevail among our own people despite all objectors. (www.virtual.co.il,1) Nazis felt that in order to build a perfect world all the impure Cordova 3 people, such as the Jews, must be exterminated. The Nazi party also expressed why all Jews, including women and children, were targeted. Heinr... ... dear G-d in a world gone mad and I have seen evil unleashed beyond reason or understanding. I was with them. We drank from the same bitter cup. I hid with them Feared with them, Struggled with them And when the killing was finally done I had survived while millions had died. I do not know why I have asked many questions for which there are no answers And I have even cursed my life thinking I could not endure the pain. But a flame inside refused to die. I could not throw away What had been ripped away from so many. In the end I had to choose life. I had to struggle to cross the bridge between the dead and the living. I had to rebuild what had been destroyed. I had to deny death Another victory. Bibliography www.about.com/holocaust www.members.home.net/captianhall/david_e.html#PreWarDaysOUR www.remember.org/malka.html 1 www.remember.org/witness/lipetz.htm 2 www.virtual.co.il/education/education/holocaust/quote/gobells.htm 1 www.virtual.co.il/education/education/holocaust/quote/himmler.htm 2 www.virtual.co.il/education/education/holocaust/quote/hitler.htm 3   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Anatomy of an Interview :: Interviewing Job Workforce Essays

According to Professor G.J. of Texas Tech University, "a productive interview is much like a good conversation, questions are asked to elicit more than a yes or no answer" ("Interviewing"). In an interview there are certain criteria to be addressed. This criteria includes, the purpose, the collection of data or evidence, and the concluding thoughts on the subject. The "Interview with the Luddite," between Kevin Kelly and Kirkpatrick Sale demonstrate the basic principles of interviewing. Kevin Kelly is the author of Out of Control: The Rise of Neo-biological Civilization (1994). Kirkpatrick Sale is the author of Rebels Against the Future: The Luddites and Their War on the Industrial Revolution-Lessons for the Computer Age (1995). Their discussion or disagreement on the subject of technology expresses the issues raised on both sides of the topic. Both men divulge their opinions as well as what they view as evidence to support their claims. Analysis of the interview involves the concepts of tone and fallacy. The definition of tone is: "a particular vocal quality that indicates some emotion or feeling, an accent, inflection, or intonation" (Webster's 1984). A fallacy, according to Webster's Dictionary, is: "A statement or argument based on a false or invalid inference." These two subtle parts influence the entire interview. The interaction and inverse relationship between tone and fallacy can sway the direction of an interview. Kelly creates the initial tone of the interview. By asking the first question, he sets the environment for Sale to respond. In the interview between Kelly and Sale, Kelly opens the discussion with the fallacy of loaded language. He asks Sale, "Other than arson and a lot of vandalism, what did the Luddites accomplish in the long run?" (243). The words "arson" and "vandalism" force Sale to be on defense right from the beginning. Sale realizes this and answers Kelly with the fallacy, Post Hoc; inferring that since one event occurs after another, it must be the cause of the second event. He argues that because "technosphere" interferes with the "biosphere" that it must be "destroying the biosphere" (244). These two examples demonstrate how tone of the interview is set. After both men raise their side's flag, they automatically assume that the rest of the interview will be an offense/defense interchange. The purpose of this interview is to raise the issue of technology and address it from both sides of the topic. In simplified terms, Kelly is for technology, while Sale is against technology. Anatomy of an Interview :: Interviewing Job Workforce Essays According to Professor G.J. of Texas Tech University, "a productive interview is much like a good conversation, questions are asked to elicit more than a yes or no answer" ("Interviewing"). In an interview there are certain criteria to be addressed. This criteria includes, the purpose, the collection of data or evidence, and the concluding thoughts on the subject. The "Interview with the Luddite," between Kevin Kelly and Kirkpatrick Sale demonstrate the basic principles of interviewing. Kevin Kelly is the author of Out of Control: The Rise of Neo-biological Civilization (1994). Kirkpatrick Sale is the author of Rebels Against the Future: The Luddites and Their War on the Industrial Revolution-Lessons for the Computer Age (1995). Their discussion or disagreement on the subject of technology expresses the issues raised on both sides of the topic. Both men divulge their opinions as well as what they view as evidence to support their claims. Analysis of the interview involves the concepts of tone and fallacy. The definition of tone is: "a particular vocal quality that indicates some emotion or feeling, an accent, inflection, or intonation" (Webster's 1984). A fallacy, according to Webster's Dictionary, is: "A statement or argument based on a false or invalid inference." These two subtle parts influence the entire interview. The interaction and inverse relationship between tone and fallacy can sway the direction of an interview. Kelly creates the initial tone of the interview. By asking the first question, he sets the environment for Sale to respond. In the interview between Kelly and Sale, Kelly opens the discussion with the fallacy of loaded language. He asks Sale, "Other than arson and a lot of vandalism, what did the Luddites accomplish in the long run?" (243). The words "arson" and "vandalism" force Sale to be on defense right from the beginning. Sale realizes this and answers Kelly with the fallacy, Post Hoc; inferring that since one event occurs after another, it must be the cause of the second event. He argues that because "technosphere" interferes with the "biosphere" that it must be "destroying the biosphere" (244). These two examples demonstrate how tone of the interview is set. After both men raise their side's flag, they automatically assume that the rest of the interview will be an offense/defense interchange. The purpose of this interview is to raise the issue of technology and address it from both sides of the topic. In simplified terms, Kelly is for technology, while Sale is against technology.

Influence of Humanism and Renaissance Italian Art

During the Italian Renaissance , humanism played an important role ininfluencing the artist of that time in their paintings and what they drew. The definition of  humanism is the denial of any power or moral value superior to that of humanity; the  rejection of religion in favor of a belief in the advancement of humanity by its own  efforts. This means that many of the philosophers, scientists, and artists of that time  started to reject the ideas of the church. Previously almost all pictures had to do with  religion but this changed and is shown in two works in the Italian Renaissance. They are  The School of Athens, by Raphael, and in The Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci.Taking a first glimpse of The School of Athens by Raphael, you will see that there  is humanism everywhere. You can tell that it was planned carefully, and portrayed  something meaningful to the artist. In the painting The School of Athens you can notice  an extremely dominant theme: Humanism. Th e artist, Raphael, shows a thirst  and  eagerness for knowledge that is displayed everywhere in the painting. This gives us a  glimpse of what society was back in the Renaissance. Judging by the painting, it was  mainly revolving around education and advancement. In The School of Athens, Raphael  paints people learning from, debating against and simply ignore one another.Each  individual illustrates a point about society in the Renaissance. Similar to the theme and  the setting of the painting, these interactions mostly have to do with knowledge and  understanding, as the school would not be a place of social life back then. Both the  theme of and people in the painting are included in the realism of a painting to show a  society, which is used effectively in The School of Athens by Raphael.In The Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci, Leonardo also uses humanism  although it has to do somewhat with religion. In the painting, there is immense amounts  of symmetry in this painting. This was important to humanism because everything was  supposed to be balanced. Also man's perfection was a big part in the renaissance, and a  body is symmetrical. So some symmetry in The Last Supper was, on either side of Jesus  was a group of six people, then in those groups of people each was split into two other  groups, all very even and symmetrical. There was also four panels on each side of the  walls.Another characteristic of humanism art was real emotions. Every single person in  this painting( besides Jesus, who was left out for obvious reasons) is not smiling. They  are giving real emotions. Humanism art was all about emotions, and being real. All the  people in the painting seem concerned or anxious, all real emotions, they are not just  happy all the time. Like what was stated before, artist of the time wanted to show how  real people in the paintings were. All the people have shaded in feature which give them  the look of real people.As you can see, by these two works and also by many others, there much much  humanism involved. In almost every painting, the artists drew more life like pictures and  people showing the expressions of their faces and the society they had lived in at that  time. You can see this in the two examples that I showed. Both of them had similar  aspects because both had realistic people in them, and both pictures showed expressions  on the peoples faces.

Carbohydrate and Peptide †Based Vaccines: The Way Forward

Abstract Existing treatments and therapies have supported a huge variety of diseases and infections, a significant example being antibiotics. However the increasing presence of multi-resistant bacteria, as well as increased changes observed in the mechanisms responsible for variation in viruses, involving accumulation of mutations within the genes that code for antibody-binding sites (known as antigenic drift), has resulted in these new strains not being inhibited as effectively by those treatments that originally targeted them (Reche, Fernandez-Caldas, Flower, Fridkis-Hareli and Hoshino, 2014). The knock-on effect has been that the bacteria or virus is able to spread more easily, and therapeutic treatments (used after a person contracts a disease), become less effective, unable to work by boosting the host’s own immune system. As a result, it has been recognised that the vaccine offers the advantage of preventing the anticipation of disease occurrence, using advance action to countera ct infection and chronic illness. Prophylactic, and to a lesser extent therapeutic, vaccines are the most cost-effective and efficient alternative to other treatments and prevention of infectious and chronic diseases. They work by causing changes to the T- and B-cells of the adaptive immune system to eliminate or prevent pathogen growth (Plotkin, Orenstein, and Offit, 2013). Going back to the introduction of vaccines more than 200 years ago, these were initially composed of killed pathogens, which although successful, also caused unacceptably high levels of adverse reactions. During the years of research that have since followed, as with the changes observed with antibiotics and other treatments becoming less effective, the need for safer and more effective vaccines has also been acknowledged. In addition, an improved understanding of antigen presentation and subsequent recognition has supported the development of newer vaccine types (Flower, 2013). Equally, whilst many diseases and infections are controlled by vaccines, for some, no vaccines have been developed, including Streptococcus pyogenes, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) (Wang and Walfield, 2005; Barrett and Stanberry, 2009). Efforts to develop new vaccines are discussed in more details, with a focus on peptide-based and carbohydrate-based vaccines. Challenges are also discussed, leading to a summary of the potential direction of vaccination and research, which describes a promising future. Peptide-based vaccines An example of a newer category of vaccine is peptide-based vaccines. Peptides are short sequences of proteins, and diseases/infections use these proteins as part of their attack on the immune system. In many cases, the immune system has the ability to recognise the proteins associated with an attack by disease or infectious causing pathogens and can respond effectively. However as observed with many cancers, HIV, HCV and other conditions, an effective immune response is not triggered, hence the need for newer vaccine developments including those based on peptides, which encompass single proteins or synthetic peptides encompassing many antigenic determinants (B- and T-cell epitopes) (Flower, 2013). Peptide vaccines are a type of subunit vaccine, which presents an antigen to the immune system, using the peptide of the original pathogen, supporting immunity. Such peptide-based vaccines avoid the adverse effects described with traditional whole-organism vaccines (Moisa and Kolesanova, 20 12) with additional benefits also noted (Ben-Yedidia and Arnon, 1997), including: The absence of infectious material An immune response that is specific, focusing only on the targeted epitope, with the induction of site-specific antibodies No risk of an immune attack or cross-reactivity with the host tissues Flexibility, with an ability to modify products accordingly Improved effectiveness in relation to manufacturing on a large scale, and long-term storage where necessary e.g. a pandemic. However, a number of difficulties have been encountered during the development of such vaccines (Simerska, Moyle and Toth, 2011; Dudek, Perlmutter, Aguilar, Croft and Purcell, 2010) including: A short biological activity of peptides due to degradation by enzymes The trigger of a weak immune response when used alone i.e. single peptides Finding optimal delivery systems. As a result, and to overcome the difficulties mentioned above, synthetic peptide vaccines have been developed, on the basis that a greater more accurately targeted immune response will be achieved. Peptide antigens are not immunogenic by themselves, so this has led to investigations into co-administration of subunit peptide antigens with adjuvants (immunostimulants) to increase the peptide-induced responses to corresponding antigens. Appropriate delivery systems and often toxic adjuvants have demonstrated effective immunity, however, although many adjuvants are described in the literature, only a few have been approved for use with vaccines for delivery in humans due to their toxicity and include water/oil emulsions, liposomes, and bacterial lipophilic compounds to offer a few examples (Heegaard et. al., 2010). Incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (IFA) and Montanide ISA (both oil-based) have been used in clinical trials. Focusing on liposomes as another example, researchers have demo nstrated that use of lipid core peptide (LCP) technology (lipidation of peptides) improves the effectiveness of a self-adjuvanting vaccine delivery system, targeting a specific disease and triggering an effective immune response. This system provides a promising platform for human vaccine development (Zhong, Skwarczynski and Toth, 2009; Moyle and Toth, 2008). In animal models, peptide vaccines have been effective in generating the required immune response, and during recent years, peptide-based vaccines have advanced from animal models and pre-clinical studies, to human clinical trials (Yang et al., 2001). Although currently, all known peptide vaccines under development for humans remain at the stage of clinical trials, these trials should build on the promising evidence resulting from research to date of the potential application of vaccine candidates based on a LCP system, as well as other strategies. Prevention of not only many infectious diseases including hepatitis C virus, mal aria, human immunodeficiency virus and group A streptococci), but also for cancer immunotherapy and improved allergen specific tolerance, remains an exciting, and very real possibility. Carbohydrate-based vaccines The development of vaccines based on carbohydrates not only has quite a history, but is also an area that is fast moving in the current research world. The literature provides evidence as far back as the early 1900s where researchers discovered a connection between type-specific polysaccharides and the induction of antibodies being developed against certain types of pneumococci (Francis and Tillett, 1930). This was confirmed by evidence of pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides being used as vaccines, providing effective and long lasting immunity (Heidelberger, Dilapi, Siegel and Walter, 1950). However despite these early findings, the discovery and success of other treatments such as antibiotics and chemotherapeutics led to this area of research being put on hold. As mentioned earlier however, due to increased resistance to existing treatments such as antibiotics, coupled with the recognition for a need of newer treatments including improved vaccines, renewed interest into preventive vaccines has resulted in novel approaches, which include carbohydrate vaccines. Vaccines are commonly made from weakened pathogens, or, as we now know, other approaches also use immunogenic proteins or polysaccharides. Carbohydrates have been the centre of attention in the research field of vaccination because not only do they exhibit more stability than proteins, but they have roles in both physiology and pathophysiology, including cell interaction and signalling, inflammation, pathogen host adhesion/recognition, to name a few examples (Doshi, Shanbhag, Aggarwal, Shahare and Martis, 2011). During the last ten years or so, they have been used as adjuvants, as carriers for protein antigens to aid immunotherapy, and as targets for vaccines against bacteria. Additionally, as observed with DNA and proteins, carbohydrates are now recognised as biopolymers also, playing a role in many molecular and biological activities (Doshi et. al., 2011). These discoveries, partnered by an improved u nderstanding of the immune system and the identification of specific and relevant carbohydrate structures, led to the development of glycoconjugates, which in turn led to carbohydrate vaccine development (Holemann and Seeberger, 2004). Glycoconjugates are present in the surfaces of cells, as well as in the surrounding extracellular matrices and connective tissue. Therefore both the identified structure and presence of glyconjugates, plus the role they play, means they are a suitable basis for the development of new vaccines. Induction of protective antibodies is key to an effective immune response as a result of a vaccine, and as with peptide vaccines, challenges have been evident in the research to develop effective carbohydrate vaccines, including the following: Glycans struggle to effectively induce protective antibodies Carbohydrates have a low immunogenic impact by themselves (as observed with peptides). There are two main carbohydrate vaccine types: 1. Natural carbohydrate vac cines: these include small amounts of impurities 2. Synthetic carbohydrate vaccines: these are produced with no contaminants, and are cost-effective due large-scale production. Synthetic carbohydrate antigens used to develop vaccines have triggered immune responses in clinical studies and are favourable given the risk of adverse effects with natural vaccines. Four crucial aspects need to be considered for the design of carbohydrate-based vaccines (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): The antigen source: glycan antigens are diverse, ranging from large polysaccharide capsules, to small monosaccharides, to oligosaccharides, all of which have been shown to be adequate for preparation of vaccines. The carrier: this is most often proteins, although other materials have been investigated, with the aim of ensuring that the link between the antigen and the carrier is specific. The method of conjugation (or ligation): protein conjugates, lipid conjugates and polyvalent scaffold conjugates have been d eveloped. The success of a conjugate vaccine depends partly on the method of conjugation employed. This should be simple and efficient, as well as causing minimal distortion to the individual components involved, with many differing techniques used (Zou & Jennings, 2009; Ada and Isaacs, 2003). The choice of adjuvant: required to improve immunogenicity of the carbohydrate antigens being targeted, with a limited choice approved for use in humans. Examples of diseases targeted by carbohydrate-based vaccines The discussion will now move on to the use of carbohydrate-based vaccines in three disease areas: Group A Streptococcus (GAS), HIV/AIDS and Haemophilus influenza type b. GAS The need for a safe, effective, affordable and practical vaccine against GAS (also known as Streptococcus pyogenes), has been recognised for many years, as has the research into a vaccine against this disease, given the global burden on health that this disease causes in particular in less developed countries. More than 500,000 deaths result from the GAS each year, with the bacteria causing a range of both less complicated and life-threatening illnesses (Carapetis, Steer, Mulholland and Weber, 2005). The diversity of GAS strains is the major challenge for the development of an anti-GAS vaccine, with more than 100 different strains identified, of which the genetic sequence for several different strains have been determined (Johnson and Pinto, 2002). Rese arch has identified that GAS bacteria contain a surface polysaccharide made up of long, repetitive polysaccharide chains. The conserved and constant arrangement of these chains suggests conjugate vaccines to be an attractive and achievable option, with animal models supporting this theory (Cunningham, 2000). Synthetic carbohydrate vaccines, although only studied in a limited set of GAS infections, have demonstrated a protective immune response (Robbins et al., 2009). In addition, some areas of research have focused on the molecular analysis of a surface protein labelled the M protein, which is encoded by the emm gene. This particular gene has been found to be the major cause of GAS related clinical manifestations (Smeesters, McMillan and Sriprakash, 2010). These findings have allowed a greater understanding of the functioning of specific proteins responsible for the virulence of the disease, which in turn, supports the development of potential GAS vaccines. Vaccine prevention of GAS and the resulting symptoms and complications has been a goal of researchers for many years. A number of vaccines have been in research development to offer protection against GAS, with the research vaccine strategies focusing on either M protein, or non-M protein antigens (Smeesters, 2014). However only those vaccines that use the M protein as the antigen have progressed to clinical trials (McNeil et. al., 2005), and have included conserved antigens coverage across the many strains of GAS, a type-specific vaccine based on the N-terminal portion of the M protein, and a recombinant vaccine that reached phase II clinical trials (Pandey, Wykes, Hartas, Good and Batzloff, 2013; Bauer, 2012). However no vaccine has currently reached licensing and so the diseases caused remain uncontrolled in many areas, with reviews covering the research suggesting that even those vaccines developed with the aim of providing large coverage of GAS strains, these vaccine might achieve acceptable coverage i n developed countries, but in less developed countries where the disease burden is much greater, the positive impact of the vaccines would be much lower due to a greater strain diversity (Smeesters, McMillan, Sriprakash, and Georgousakis, 2009; Steer, Law, Matatolu, Beall and Carapetis, 2009; McMillan and Sanderson, 2013). Equally, antibiotic treatment is either impractical with regards to implementation (specifically in less developed countries) or ineffective. One research group targeted the bacteria by synthesising a new self-adjuvanting vaccine candidate, incorporating a carbohydrate carrier and an amino acid-based adjuvant, resulting in successful synthesis and characterisation of the vaccine candidate. This may contribute to the identification of a safe and effective vaccine against GAS in the future (Simerska et. al., 2008; Simerska, Lu and Toth, 2009). HIV/AIDS One of the main challenges researchers have faced within the field of vaccine development against HIV/AIDS, is that the virus surface is covered with layers of glycans, which conceal underlying viral antigens that are potential good targets in the production of vaccines (Scanlan, Offer, Zitzmann, and Dwek, 2007). They are produced by the host cell, which makes the virus appear as â€Å"self† resulting in no attack being triggered by the host immune system. The layers of carbohydrate also contain mannose residues, making these another potential target for a vaccine aimed at preventing HIV infection, whereby lectins preferentially bind to ? 1-2 linked mannose residues. Such lectins are being investigated as possible therapeutic tools (Tsai et al., 2004) although the fact that lectins are often toxic needs to be researched further to avoid the host immune system damaging host cells. Indeed, other drugs that are known to inhibit synthesis of carbohydrates only have this effect at often toxic concentrations to cause antiviral activity. Another strategy based on the same principle of developing a carbohydrate vaccine, is the identification of antibodies that again recognise and bind to glycans. (Scanlan et al., 2002, Scanlan et al., 2007). The antibody appears to recognize these glycans because although they belong to the host, they are arranged in a â€Å"non-self† manner (Scanlan et al., 2002; Scanlan et al., 2007), making the production of effective ant-HIV vaccines a real possibility, in addition to vaccines for other diseases such as cancer (Galonic and Gin, 2007). Studies have also been described using immune enhancing adjuvants, carrier peptides such as keyhole limpet hemocyanin and altered glycan structure constructs that support immune recognition in the development of vaccines against cancer (Galonic and Gin, 2007). These same strategies are being used in development of possible HIV vaccines, where antibodies target self-carbohydrates arranged slightly differently on cancer cells and HIV-infected cells, in comparison to healthy cells. (Galonic and Gin, 20 07). These approaches have not as yet led to clinically effective vaccines, but it is clear that antibodies that strongly bind to carbohydrate antigens on, for example, prostate cancer cells, have been generated (Slovin et al., 2003) and this appears to be a highly promising approach. Further exploration is required based on the carbohydrate coat of the virus, which may lead to improved prevention treatment of HIV. Haemophilus influenza type b The first synthetic vaccine for human application was developed in 2003 for protection against Haemophilus influenza type b vaccine, not only providing protection against this bacterium, but also against all the associated diseases it causes ranging from meningitis, septicaemia, pneumonia and arthritis (Doshi, Shanbhag, Aggarwal, Shahare and Martis, 2011). Indeed this bacterium is the leading cause of serious illnesses in children under 5 years worldwide. The majority of strains of Haemophilus influenza are non-encapsulated, and are lacking in any carbohydrate polysaccharide protective structure, as opposed to the GAS bacteria and HIV virus described earlier. This structural information armed researchers with the knowledge that carbohydrate polysaccharide conjugate vaccines would be required to ensure the development of an effective vaccine (Verez-Bencomo et. al., 2004). As a result, carbohydrate-based vaccines have been licensed for protection in humans against haemophilus influenza type b, using oligomerization and a carrier protein (Doshi et. al., 2011).Evidence of progressTo end this section of the discussion, several conjugate polysaccharide carbohydrate vaccines are now well into pre-clinical/clinical development, or have been licensed and are now commercially available. Examples of licensed vaccines include the following (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib) – 4 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via 3 different pharmaceutical companies: ActHIB and Hiberix; Pentacel; PedvaxHIB; and Comvax Neisseria meningitides A, C, Y and W-135 – 2 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via the same pharmaceutical company: Menactra; and Menomune-A/C/Y/W-135 Salmonella typhi – 1 carbohydrate- based vaccine is licensed: TYPHIM Vi Streptococcus pneumonia variants – 2 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via 2 different pharmaceutical companies: Prevnar; and Pneumovax 23. Examples of carbohydrate-based vaccines in development include the following, where the disease is described in addition to the phase of development (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): Breast cancer – with 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase and a second at phase I Prostate cancer – 4 vaccines are in development at the preclinical, phase I and phase II stages HIV-1 – 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase Group A streptococcus – 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase Group B streptococcus – 1 vaccine at phase II. Conclusion It is fact that vaccines have had a major role to play in the success of preventing and treating many diseases, however many challenges remain. Diseases exist for which no effective vaccines have yet been discovered, including HIV/AIDs. In addition, diseases that have been controlled by vaccines in some parts of the world continue to affect the lives of people adversely in other areas where infrastructures for vaccination are poor/non-existent. Continued research is necessary to develop vaccines not only for those diseases with no vaccine available, but also to improve the effectiveness of existing vaccines. In addition to research focusing on novel and promising approaches such as carbohydrate and peptide based vaccines, efforts also need to concentrate on areas such as lower cost, more convenient delivery of vaccines, and longer-term protection. The future direction of research in this field has become focused with the help of new evidence-based information and promising data. The advent of synthetic peptide-based and carbohydrate-based vaccines signified a new era for vaccines, over-taking traditional treatments and vaccines which have become either ineffective or only offer short term protection. As the discussion demonstrates, a number of vaccines are already successfully protecting humans against some pathogens and disease, with the potential for further vaccines to follow. 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